Football Fan Culture Explained: Scarves, Kits and Ultras

Football fan culture is the shared identity that grows around the game: songs, scarves, kits, flags, pubs, travel and stadiums. Much of it develops among supporters themselves rather than being designed by clubs. It has included violence, but it is far wider than that.

The game's rules were first written in England in 1863, and the culture around the sport is described as more than 160 years old. This guide traces how it grew, from scarves and programmes to ultras, and points to deeper reads on how crowds build atmosphere along the way.

What is football fan culture?

Start with the places. Clubs grew out of industrial communities, and their grounds were built among terraced housing, factories and railway lines. The habits supporters formed around those grounds, and the away days that followed, became the basis of the culture.

Scarves, badges and programmes marked allegiance, and fanzines gave supporters an independent voice. Much of this developed beyond official club control, because supporters made much of it themselves.

The culture has darker corners, and violence is part of its history. But the overwhelming majority of supporters were never football hooligans, and reducing the culture to fighting misses most of it. For the sound side, our piece on the stadiums with the best atmosphere is a good place to start, and you can try the matchday mood yourself in our unofficial Terrace experience.

How did fan culture move from scarves to replica kits and fashion?

Scarves were first introduced in the 1930s and became far more prominent in England in the 1960s and 1970s, replacing rosettes and rattles. Matchday programmes followed a similar path of growing habit: simple versions list teams, players and officials, while larger clubs now produce multi-page editions with manager and captain comments, interviews, fixtures and a feature on the opposition.

Then came the shirt. Leeds United's replica kit, made by Admiral, was first sold to fans in the 1973-74 season. By the late 1990s replica kits were common across global fan culture, and wearing a club's colours had become normal far beyond the terraces.

By the late 1970s and early 1980s, many young supporters had moved towards sportswear and designer clothing, and European away trips gave them access to brands. Adidas and Stone Island are among the names that left a lasting mark. Music shaped the look too, from punk, ska, mod, soul and reggae to indie, rave and electronic music. Acid house and rave arrived in the late 1980s, with Madchester in the North West.

Superstitions sit alongside all this. Lucky shirts and rituals are a small but telling part of the picture, as we explore in lucky shirts and football superstitions.

Are football fans hooligans? What is the English Disease?

Hooliganism is part of the story, but most supporters were never football hooligans. The term English Disease covers hooliganism and organised fighting firms, and it came into common use after disorder by English fans abroad in the 1970s and 1980s.

Disasters changed the rules on crowd control and safety. Hillsborough and Ibrox were linked to crowd control problems, Heysel to a combination of hooliganism and poor crowd control, and the Bradford City fire to poor fire safety. The lessons led to safer stadiums and gradual bans on smoking, though the sources checked do not date those bans. The end of the old standing areas is covered in what football terraces were and why they went.

Pitch invasions have a long history too: the 1923 'White Horse' FA Cup final at Wembley is a well-known example. FIFA's Fair Play programme aims to increase sportsmanship and prevent discrimination, with respect for opponents, referees, officials and spectators. One example is Paolo Di Canio, playing for West Ham against Everton, who caught a crossed ball rather than score when the Everton goalkeeper was injured.

What are ultras and where did they start?

Ultras are predominantly organised fans. The term began in Italy but is now used worldwide. Typical behaviour includes chants, drums, flares and smoke bombs (mainly in tifo), elaborate displays, flags, banners and trips to away games. Groups often have a representative who liaises with club owners about tickets, seats and storage, and some clubs give them cheaper tickets and early stadium access.

The origin is disputed. One account gives the first group as circolo salernitani fieri in Salerno in 1921; another names the ordine del marzocco, formed by Fiorentina fans in Florence in 1931. Torcida Split was formed on 28 October 1950, inspired by Brazilian torcidas and the 1950 World Cup. In Italy, the first ultras groups formed in 1951, including Torino's Fedelissimi Granata, and the word was first used as a group name in 1969, when Sampdoria supporters formed the Ultras Tito Cucchiaroni.

The 1970s brought choreographed displays, giant flags, drums and fireworks, and the movement spread across Europe, Australia, Asia and North Africa between the 1980s and 2000s. Ultras groups have been responsible for many cases of violence, but unlike hooligan firms they do not have the explicit aim of fighting other fans. Some are linked to far-right or far-left politics, and ultras have been a focal point of protest against the commercialisation of football.

Regional cousins include casuals in the UK, barras bravas in Hispanic America, which emerged in Argentina in the 1950s, and torcidas in Brazil, whose start is dated variously to the 1930s and 1939. One estimate, which its source describes as supposed, puts German ultras at more than 25,000 across over 300 groups. Their loyalties can feed into the rivalries that define football.

What are the rules on alcohol at grounds, and why does Scotland have a blanket ban?

Rules differ across the UK. Most English and Welsh clubs still sell alcohol in general areas, while Scottish clubs face a blanket ban that followed rioting after the 1980 Scottish Cup Final. Research has cast doubt on whether alcohol restrictions reduce disorder.

Food is part of the day as well: meat pies and Bovril in the UK, choripan in Argentina, bratwurst in Germany, sunflower seeds in Spain and Bulgaria, and calabresa sandwiches and feijao tropeiro near Brazilian grounds.

Redevelopment brought safety requirements and commercial growth, and changed many grounds. Highbury, Maine Road, the Boleyn Ground, Highfield Road, Elm Park and the Victoria Ground have all gone as active venues. Many supporters feel something was lost along the way, even as the safety gains are clear.

This guide does not cover safe standing, digital fandom or the experience of women supporters in depth, because the sources checked did not establish those points clearly.